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                 DOS FOR BEGINNERS - A LOW STRESS INTRODUCTION 

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       This tutorial discusses minimum basic DOS commands, DOS shells, 
       disk subdirectory structure, start up boot sequence and file 
       names/file handling. 

       DOS stands for disk operating system. DOS is the software 
       program which controls the primary input and output of your 
       computer while you use an application program such as your word 
       processor or database. Learning about DOS isn't that difficult 
       after all. It seems that beginners live in fear of DOS. 
       
       A better way to do things is to imagine that DOS is a kitchen of 
       cooking tools and helpful chefs waiting for your instructions on 
       what to fix for lunch. Here's the point of the analogy: you've 
       got to be a little comfortable in the kitchen to live (no food - 
       no you!) 

       Same thing with DOS. Learn just a little and you can survive. 
       But just as with the kitchen, a steady diet of peanut butter 
       sandwiches may keep you alive (i.e., passing familiarity with 
       only 4 or 5 DOS commands), life is more flavorful eating a 
       variety of things like seafood, salad and dessert (i.e., a 
       richer diet of DOS commands.) 

       DOS or the disk operating system controls the flow of data to 
       and from the screen, keyboard, disk drives, printers and of 
       course the integrated circuit RAM (random access memory) chips 
       wherein data is stored and processed. In as sense, DOS is the 
       "verbal interpreter" through which your program (e.g., word 
       processor) talks to the raw hardware. Somewhat like a person in 
       a foreign land who needs a language interpreter. 

       Over the years DOS has been produced in a variety of versions. 
       New commands and capabilities have been added with different 
       versions for a variety of machines. You might bump into a 
       version of DOS for a true IBM machine and a version of DOS for a 
       machine manufactured by Tandy. PC-DOS is a version of the more 
       general MS-DOS developed for 16-bit computers using the Intel-
       manufactured line of CPU microprocessor chips. 

       DOS is a software program having MANY parts! It consists of one 
       (or more) disk(s) having an input/output system, a command 
       processor, and many utilities. Don't worry about all of this 
       right now, just be aware that DOS has many parts. 
       
       DOS utilities are small software program files which are found 
       on your DOS disk. These utility files perform helpful tasks such 
       as formatting a disk or checking it for errors. Since they are a 
       part of DOS, they live on the same disk but are not needed all 
       of the time (e.g., you may need to format disks only once or 
       twice a week and thus occasionally use FORMAT.COM which lives on 
       your DOS disk.) Thus these EXTERNAL disk-based utility programs 
       live in the computer's RAM (random access memory) chips 
       TEMPORARILLY while in use and usually are kept on the disk until 
       needed. They are EXTERNAL commands. 
       
       Other commands live inside RAM memory because they are used 
       frequently and are INTERNAL DOS commands. The file FORMAT.COM is 
       an example of an EXTERNAL COMMAND. An example of an INTERNAL 
       COMMAND would be DIR. 
              
       Keep in mind that there are two basic types of DOS commands 
       which will become more apparent as we delve into DOS magic. 

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          DOS THE EASY WAY - DOS SHELLS AREN'T FOUND AT THE SEASHORE
       
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       Before we start our main DOS tutorial a brief alternative:
       
       There is always an easier way to do anything - given enough 
       time and ingenuity. If DOS commands and structure are not 
       interesting or you don't have the time to learn DOS, there exist 
       programs called DOS SHELLS which essentially provide DOS access 
       for routine things like moving and copying files; these menu 
       programs hide the DOS commands behind a series of "point and 
       select" choices and options a little bit like the point and 
       shoot menus you are using with this software package. 
       
       The typical DOS shell is a package which surrounds DOS (like a 
       shell, hence the name) and allows you to perform the most common 
       DOS functions by pressing only one or two keys or moving a 
       highlighted arrow. Very appealing for beginners! This may be
       all the DOS control most people need . . .

       This is a bit like using a cash machine at the bank. If you need 
       to take money out of the machine, you insert your card, key in a 
       password and press a few different choice buttons. DOS SHELLS 
       provide a screen of DOS command CHOICES, allowing you to point 
       the arrow or cursor at the task you want done. You see a menu of 
       choices instead of a cryptic C> prompt. 

       The tradeoff is that you may miss out some of the more subtle 
       operations that direct contact with DOS can provide, but then 
       sometimes it is easier to get the task accomplished without 
       fancy sidetracking and confusion. 
  
       There are two flavors of DOS shells: memory resident which stay put 
       in the computer memory and are always available whether the 
       DOS shell disk is in the machine or not. The second type, non-
       resident shells, live on the disk and must be present in the disk 
       drive to be used. Non-resident DOS shells do not use active RAM 
       memory continuously and thus free more memory space for your 
       main program. 

       Some DOS shells also have added features: security passwords and 
       macros - the capability to cause one key or key combination to 
       instantly type a long string of commands. DOS shells are a good 
       "beginners crutch" to let you work with the computer and its DOS 
       operating system without having to learn the DOS commands and 
       their somewhat arcane syntax. 

       Some practical and easy DOS shell packages include: Still River 
       Shell, DOS2ools, PC Tools, Powermenu, Automenu, Dirmagic and 
       Directory Freedom. If you are beginner and don't want to be 
       troubled learning DOS, then a shell program is the easiest way 
       to use the PC. DOS version 5.0 contains its own shell system.

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                        USING DOS - THE NUTS AND BOLTS 

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       Next let's jump into our main DOS tutorial, for those interested.

       Remember, there are TWO ways to use DOS. Directly at the prompt 
       using what is termed a COMMAND LINE. This is the detailed method 
       we will study in a paragraph or so. A second way is to use a DOS 
       SHELL to manage files and other data, as we discussed previously. 

       The following examples are best practiced at the DOS prompt A> 
       or C> rather than within this tutorial. You might wish to print 
       this tutorial and then practice the examples with your computer 
       displaying a true DOS prompt such as  C>

       To print this tutorial, refer to the help screen (press F1) for 
       instructions on "file printing."

       Now let's begin the tutorial: 

       When you first turn on the computer with only the DOS disk in 
       place, assuming some automatic startup software or menu program 
       has not been installed, you will see the lonesome A> prompt or 
       maybe C> prompt if you have a hard drive. 

       The DEFAULT drive is the disk drive in which DOS will search for 
       a program or file if no other specification to another drive is 
       given. The prompt tells you which drive is the default drive at 
       the moment. DOS can specify up to 63 drive names (not just a, b 
       and c!) 

       If A> is on the screen it is the DOS prompt and in this case the 
       A: drive is the DEFAULT floppy drive which will be searched for 
       information if you issue a command and ask DOS to execute it. 

       You can CHANGE the default drive simply. Let's try switching 
       drives.  

       If you see   A>     try the following example: 

       (Example)     b:    <press enter or return key> 

       The result on screen is now     B> 

       The computer now pays attention to b: (b drive). Hopefully there 
       is a disk in b: drive or DOS gets confused and will give you an 
       error message. 

       If you have a hard drive (which is usually the C: drive,) you 
       can try switching back and forth between your A: drive and C: in 
       a similar manner. Try switching around between drives, go back 
       and forth a few times. Switching drives is a VERY IMPORTANT 
       SKILL, since DOS pays attention to the default drive whose 
       letter is displayed on your screen.

       Let's try some other simple DOS commands. Type the short 
       command (such as VER) when you see a DOS prompt. You can use 
       either upper or lower case letters to type DOS commands.
       
       Try these examples . . . 

       (Example)                      A>ver   <then press enter key> 
       (Example)                      A>time  <then press enter key> 
       (Example)                      A>date  <then press enter key> 

       In the above examples, you first asked DOS to tell you what 
       version of DOS you are using then a request to tell you the time 
       and date. Get the idea? Type in a word or phrase and something 
       happens. But just what are the words and phrases? Let's delve 
       more deeply . . .

       (Example)                      A>dir/p   <enter> 
  
       You get a listing of files in the drive (hopefully a disk is in 
       the drive.) Notice that we added  /p to the end of a command. P 
       is shorthand for "pause after each screenful."  The DIR command 
       means "directory" (a list of files or programs on the disk.) You 
       can modify a basic DOS command like DIR with additional COMMAND 
       SWITCHES, PARAMETERS and ARGUMENTS (e.g., /p) which simply 
       implies modifications to a basic DOS command. The following 
       examples show DOS commands with modifying switches or 
       parameters.

       Try this . . . 

       (Example)        A>dir/w    <enter>   /w means "wide screen" 
       (Example)        A>dir a:   <enter>   list a: drive contents 
       (Example)        A>dir b:   <enter>   list b: drive contents 
                                                                           
       You will notice that the DOS prompt stays with or in the default 
       drive you started from but can examine another drive directory 
       then COME BACK to the default drive from where you started. 
       Another way of explaining this is that you can switch back and 
       forth between drives (typing a: or b:) and ask for directories 
       OR you can stay in a drive and ask DOS to look at either a: or 
       b: independently of the default drive. Flexibility! 

       A REMINDER: DOS is a computer operating system. Many of its 
       commands once loaded stay inside the machine. As long as the 
       power is on, these commands stay resident (stay put) and are 
       called INTERNAL commands. DIR is an example of an INTERNAL 
       COMMAND - it lives inside the computer once DOS is loaded. 
       EXTERNAL COMMANDS only live on the DOS disk and can be copied to 
       other disks (example: SORT.COM). They load TEMPORARILY into the 
       computer memory, do their job and then are gone. EXTERNAL DOS 
       COMMANDS MUST HAVE A DOS DISK (OR COPY) of that command in a 
       disk drive when you need them. 

       While we are concentrating on DOS at the moment it is important 
       to understand that DOS is only an operating system. DOS is the 
       first step. The second step for most people is to use more 
       useful APPLICATION programs such as word processors, accounting 
       systems, databases or other software to accomplish real work. 

       These higher level APPLICATION programs are started by entering 
       a simple word or instruction at the DOS prompt. For example, if 
       you purchased a word processing disk it might instruct you to 
       insert that special disk into the computer and type:      
       A>start    (then press enter key) 
       
       The point is that DOS is a program which itself allows other 
       useful programs to be loaded into the PC and operated. 

       TIME TO JUMP TO LIGHTSPEED! 

       The listing which follows is a portion of the most useful DOS 
       commands with examples and clarification tips. Your DOS manual 
       contains many more.
                                      
       -- DIR -- (Internal command) lists a table of disk file 
       contents. Use this command to view a disk volume label, all 
       filenames, sizes of files in bytes, the date, time of file 
       creation and amount of space left for storage on the disk. A 
       disk for IBM PCs clones hold about 360,000 bytes or computer 
       "words." DIR/W lists columns in "wide screen mode" DIR/P lists 
       in "pause" mode (one screen at a time). You can also locate or 
       find certain files. Example: A>dir letter.bak   Example: C>dir 
       rll.wks. You can switch and view another directory.  
       
       Example:  C>dir b: 
       
       Example  A>dir c:   
       
       When you issue the DIR command your screen will produce a 
       listing similar to this assuming you have a disk in the
       floppy drive: 

                    COMMAND  COM    16037   2-15-84   3:55p   
                    ANSI     SYS     1632   6-26-84   5:15p
                    ASSIGN   EXE     1386   5-22-84   3:42p
                    AUTOEXEC BAT       40   3-26-87   6:32a
                    BACKUP   COM    11855  12-11-84   1:02p
                    CHKDSK   COM     6468  10-19-83   7:51p
                    DEBUG    COM    12223  10-19-83   7:52p
                    DEVCNFG  COM     4621   9-18-85   7:01p
                    DISKCOMP COM     2088   9-12-85   4:41p
                    DISKCOPY COM     1409  10-19-83   7:51p
                    DISKSHIP EXE     2376   8-29-85  11:08a

       In the above partial screen listing, the first word in each line 
       is the filename. The second word is the file extension. 
       (Example: the first file is actually named COMMAND.COM not  
       COMMAND   COM ). The next number is the byte count or file size 
       (i.e., how many computer words or bytes make up the file). The 
       next item is the date of file creation. The final item is the 
       time of file creation. This is very useful as you start to build 
       up a collection of files! Which one is the latest and when did I 
       write that financial report are common questions and good 
       reasons why a date and time of file creation is important to 
       both DOS and you. 

       Tip: FILE HANDLING with the DIR command and DOS. On the screen a 
       directory listing might show a file as    BUDGET    WKS  but 
       the true filename syntax is always BUDGET.WKS The point is 
       that you need a dot between the filename (first part) and the 
       extension of the file (second part) or DOS cannot handle the 
       file properly. 

       FILENAMES. There is a meaning to life, as they say. The clue as 
       to the use of a file usually resides in its three character file 
       extension. Files can be typed in upper or lower case, DOS 
       doesn't care! Names longer than eight letters will be shortened 
       automatically to eight letters. File extensions longer than 
       three letters will be shortened to three letters. The file name 
       frequently gives a clue as to the nature of the file. The file 
       extension tells WHAT KIND of file it might be. 

       Acceptable characters which can be used to make up a file name 
       are:  A through Z, 0 through 9, and these:  $#&@!()-{}'`_~ 

       Unacceptable characters which CANNOT be used in a filename are:        
       |<>\^+=?/[]";,*  (and also)  Control characters and the space 

       Examples of filenames. LOOK CAREFULLY AT THE THREE DIGIT 
       EXTENSIONS:

       123.EXE             The program 123, an "executable" file. 
                           Think of as a program that can be started 
                           and "run" to do something. 

       GO.BAT              A Batch file (bat). Like an exe file. 
                           Contains plain english DOS commands and can 
                           be viewed with the DOS "type" command. 

       VIEW.COM            Unknown file, but a "command" type, 
                           similar to an exe file.                  

       783.WKS             A worksheet file from lotus 
                           possibly from July of 1983 (7/83) 

       README.TXT          Probably a text file in plain 
                           english. Can be read and viewed with the 
                           DOS command: TYPE (discussed below.)        

       XVC.DBF             Unknown file, but we might guess a dBase 
                           database program database file.

       CONFIG.SYS          A PC system file. Helps "configure" your 
                           computer for specific hookups, and equipment. 

       If you type A>ZIGZAG   (then press enter key) DOS will look for: 
       ZIGZAG.COM or ZIGZAG.EXE or ZIGZAG.BAT. As we illustrated in the 
       directory listing above, the first (ZIZAG.COM) is a COMMAND file 
       or program which can be run to do something. The second is an 
       executable file. And, the third is a batch file (see the batch 
       file tutorial.) COM and EXE files can execute as programs. The 
       difference between the two relates to how memory is allocated. 
       COM files when loaded into memory are exact mirror images of 
       their structure on disk. EXE files are usually larger programs 
       which use extensive chunks of RAM memory and are not exact 
       images of their disk counterpart. An arcane but interesting 
       distinction. 

       A DOS command has a unique command syntax just like we humans 
       have rules of grammar. A DOS command has a mandatory part and 
       some DOS commands have an optional part. 

       For example, DIR C:pathname\filename.ext/w/p is the complete 
       syntax for the DOS DIR command we used above, BUT only DIR is 
       mandatory. We will explain pathnames and directories in a later 
       tutorial. For now, just realize that DOS commands have a central 
       or mandatory command and additional "refinements" or options 
       with little / and \ bars to refine the command. 
       
       / is a slash. \ is called a backslash. 
       
       You don't need to use the refinements, but they help as you grow 
       in proficiency. 

       DOS is quite honest for the most part. When you ask for a 
       directory listing of files on a disk you usually get it. EXCEPT 
       for two small lies! On the main DOS disk are two files which 
       cannot be seen on the directory (hidden) but are there: 
       IBMBIO.COM and IBMDOS.COM. These files are the core of the 
       operating system. 
       
       The designers of DOS hid them for two reasons 1) copyright 
       concerns 2) protection from accidental erasure. But the biggest 
       problem is that these two special files will not copy to disks 
       in the normal manner (see our copy discussion below). These two 
       files can only be copied with the SYS command or DISKCOPY 
       command (also below). Without these two files a disk cannot boot 
       or startup the computer. When you copy a DOS disk the COPY 
       command copies almost everything (except IBMBIO and IBMDOS.) The 
       DISKCOPY command copies everything. You only need IBMBIO.COM and 
       IBMDOS.COM to start the computer. IBMBIO.COM and IBMDOS.COM do 
       not have to be on every disk - only those disks which start the 
       computer. 

       Tip: STOP! Not a formal DOS command, but if you need to stop 
       something in progress, (copying, listing) do this: If a 
       directory is scrolling endlessly down the screen, hit control 
       key AND the S key held together. This stops things until you 
       want to continue (hit any key). To stop a DOS operation 
       altogether, use control key and C key together. Easy way to 
       remember: control-C means crash. control-S means stop. This will 
       not always work within every program (e.g., inside lotus 1-2-3) 
       but it does work within DOS. 

       -- TYPE -- (Internal)  displays or "types" the contents of a 
       file on your monitor. Use type for a glimpse into files. Only 
       text files (also known as ASCII files) will read in english. 
       Other files (com or exe) will show gibberish since they are in 
       computer code. Hit CTRL-Z to stop (control and Z keys). Hit 
       Ctrl-S (control and S key) to pause and any key to restart. 

       Example: A>type readme.1st        (sends output to screen) 

       Example: B>type readme.1st>prn    (sends output to printer) 

       -- ? and * -- DOS can use "wildcards" in many operations (? *). 
       Simply stated, these wildcards take the place of letters and 
       numbers. Use the question mark as any SINGLE character. Use the 
       * as any GROUP of ANY LENGTH of characters. Think of them as 
       shortcuts to get the job done! Very powerful and useful! 
       Frequently used with the COPY and DEL commands which are 
       discussed in a few paragraphs. 

       Example: C>dir a:*.wks 

       Means provide a directory listing of any files on the a: drive 
       ending in WKS and beginning with ANY characters of ANY length 
       from 1 to eight digits. Files such as MY.WKS or NUMBERS.WKS or 
       NAMES.WKS would fit this description. 
  
       Example: B>copy ???.dat a: 

       Means copy any files to a: drive ending in DAT and having any 
       characters in the filename AND ONLY filenames exactly three 
       digits long. 

       The often used *.* means ANY FILE NAME and ANY extension 
       regardless of length. For instance: 

       Example: C>copy *.* a:   (means copy ALL files from the existing 
                                default c: into the a: drive) 

       Example: C>copy a:*.* b:  (means copy ALL files from a: to b:) 

       Example: A>del finance.*   (delete files from the a: drive which 
                                  begin with finance and have ANY file 
                                  extension size or character type.) 

       -- COPY -- (Internal) copies one or several files to a disk or 
       directory. Copy can duplicate a file onto another disk or into a 
       subdirectory (more on subdirectories later). Copy is the most 
       flexible and powerful of the DOS commands! Use the copy command 
       with the wildcards seen above for even more flexibility. 

       Example: B>copy zip.doc a:  (copy zip.doc from b: drive to a: 
                                   drive.) 

       Example: A>copy c:why.me b: (copy why.com from c: drive to b: 
                                   drive.) 

       Example: C>copy c:fuss.txt b:whine.txt   (copy fuss.txt from c: 
                                                drive to b: drive and 
                                                rename it whine.txt) 

       Copy and /v verifies a good transfer or copy. 

       Example:   A>copy whine.bat b:/v 

       Means copy the disk file whine.bat to the b: drive and then 
       VERIFY this is a good copy. Verify is also an independent DOS 
       command. 

       Copy and the + symbol COMBINES two or more files into one larger 
       file. Useful for combining two wordprocessor files into one 
       larger file. 

       Example: A> copy files.old+files.new files.all   
                          (The NEW file = files.all) 

       Copy can send data to the printer. 

       Example: B>copy files.new prn 

       Example: B>copy files.new>prn. 

       Copy CON (copy from the console or keyboard) can prepare batch 
       files and autoexec.bat files to automate many DOS operations 
       (examples below). In this fashion copy can create a new file and 
       act like a very simple "mini" word processor! 

       Example: 
       
       A>copy con lotus.bat  (press enter) 
       A>123                 (press enter) 
       A>^Z                  (press enter) 

       In the last line ^Z is produced by either pressing F6 (function 
       key 6) or holding down control key and z key together. This file 
       means (first line) create a file named Lotus.bat as typed 
       from the keyboard or con (console). (Second line) execute the 
       program named 123. (Final line) end of my orders from the 
       keyboard - prepare the file Lotus.bat and save it on the disk. 

       -- VERIFY -- (Internal) checks file copying operations to make 
       sure a newly copied file is identical to its companion. It is 
       usually added as a /V command at the end of a copy command, but 
       also is a separate DOS command. Typing verify all by itself 
       simply reports whether verify is currently on or off. 

       Example: C>verify on   (turns on verify function until you turn 
                              it off) 

       Example  B>verify off  (turns off verify function until you turn 
                              it on) 
                                                
       -- DATE and TIME -- (Internal) A calendar and clock exist within 
       DOS. On some computers it automatically is updated and kept 
       current. On other computers (without a clock card or chip 
       installed) you type in the date and time on startup. If you 
       don't type in the date and time manually or have an automatic 
       clock chip which does this, the default values will be 1/1/80 
       and 00:00:00.00 for date and time respectively. You can enter 
       the date with hyphens (-) or slashes (/). Do not enter the day 
       of the week (e.g., Monday) even though it may show on the 
       monitor. The PC will calculate this for you automatically. A two 
       digit year references dates between 1980 and 1999. In 2000 you 
       must use four digits. The time setting references a 24 hour 
       military time clock (e.g., 1300 hours =  1PM). Date and time 
       data is important to DOS since it is attached to all files to 
       keep track of when they were created so you can determine which 
       file is most recent. 

       Example: B>time    

       Example: A>date 

       -- DEL or ERASE -- (Internal) deletes files or groups of files. 
       Use DEL*.* to erase all files from a disk. See our previous 
       mention of wildcards (* and ?). If you make a mistake, certain 
       non-DOS utilities (e.g., Nortons Utilities and PC-Tools) can un-
       delete a deleted file. But DOS cannot do this! Be careful - a 
       typographic mistake can delete an unintended file! Deleting old 
       files is a necessary operation, though, which frees up space on 
       a disk. Hard disk users may prefer to move files to a floppy to 
       free up space yet still retain a backup copy of the file in case 
       of need. 

       Example: A>del whine.txt 

       Example: B>del 784.wks 

       Example: A>del *.wks  (notice the use of the * wildcard we 
                             mentioned earlier!) 

       Example: A>del old.*  (notice the use of the * wildcard we 
                             mentioned earlier!) 

       Example: C>del ??.rxd (notice the use of the ? wildcard we 
                             mentioned earlier!) 

       -- DISKCOPY -- (External) copies entire contents of one floppy 
       to another. Some DOS versions (Ver 2.11) require you to first 
       format the blank disk  while later versions (Ver 3.1 and higher) 
       sense an unformatted disk and first format it then proceed with 
       the diskcopy. Diskcopy is a wise idea since disks wear out after 
       several hundred hours of operation. The /1 argument means copy 
       to side 0 of the disk only. All information on the target disk 
       will be destroyed and over-written with the new information, so 
       be careful! 

       Example: A>diskcopy a: b:      (copy the contents of a: floppy 
                                      to b: floppy) 

       Example: A>diskcopy a: b:/1    (copy the partial contents of a: 
                                      floppy to b: floppy using single 
                                      side of disk only) 

       -- COMP and DISKCOMP -- (External) compare two files or disks. 
       Diskcomp is frequently used after diskcopy operations. These 
       commands ensure identical accuracy of the copied files or disks. 

       Example: A>comp a:fuzz.txt b:thatch.txt    (compares two files) 

       Example: A>diskcomp a: b:                  (compares two entire 
                                                  disks)                 
       
       -- CLS -- (Internal) clears the screen and puts the cursor in 
       the home (upper left) position. Useful. Try it! 

       Example: A>cls 

       -- FORMAT -- (External) Prepares a blank floppy to receive data. 
       Think of a fresh disk as blank paper. DOS prefers graph paper 
       with little boxes drawn on it to receive data. Each little box 
       stores a computer word or "byte." Format erases any old files on 
       a disk - be careful! Format prepares the tracks and sectors 
       which will receive the data. All disks must first be formatted 
       prior to use. 

       Example: B>format a:   (format floppy in a: drive) 

       Example: C>format a:/s (format floppy in a: AND add system 
                               files) 

       Example: A>format      (format the disk in the DEFAULT a: 
                              drive).      

       Full command syntax is: format d:/s/1/8/b/v 

       In the above example, d: tells where the disk is. /s put the 
       system files IBMDOS.COM and IBMBIO.COM on the disk. /1 formats 
       one side of the disk only. /8 formats as 8 sectors for use the 
       older DOS 1.1. /b formats as 8 sectors per track and leaves room 
       for the DOS system files. /v puts a volume label onto the disk 
       for future identification. 

       Tip:  Only new (empty) formatted disks can receive the system 
       files (IBMBIO.COM and IBMDOS.COM). Once you put a few files on 
       the floppy, the system files will not fit since track 0, sector 
       0 have been used. Remember that the system files are designed to 
       start the computer and MUST start on track 0, sector 0, However 
       very few of your floppies NEED the system files: just the one or 
       two which actually start the PC. 

       Tip: Danger! A>format c: wipes out your hard drive! 
               Also C> del *.*  wipes out hard drive. 

       -- REN or RENAME -- (Internal) changes name of a file to another 
       new name. Destroys old name. Usually you will use this when you 
       want to change on old backup file to another name so that it can 
       be used by a program again. Wildcards are allowed but can cause 
       trouble - be careful. If the new file name already exists, the 
       ren command will give you an error message as a safety measure. 

       Example: A>ren old.txt new.txt 

       Tip: Use the copy command instead of rename if you want to KEEP 
       the old file and its old name, and want another copy of that 
       file with a new name. See the THIRD example given in the copy 
       command. 

       -- VER --  Shows the DOS version number. 

       Example: A>ver 

       -- VOL -- Displays a volume label, if one exists on a particular 
       hard or floppy disk. The label is a name you can give the disk 
       when it is first formatted. It can contain names, dates or 
       helpful reminders much like the title on the cover of a book. 
       Some special utilities help you change the volume label AFTER 
       formatting has taken place. 

       Example: C>vol 

       -- SYS -- (External) copies the hidden files (BIO and SYS) to 
       another disk which has been already formatted. This command 
       makes a disk floppy bootable to the computer - you no longer 
       need DOS to start the machine. The newly made disk with the two 
       hidden files will boot (start) the machine by itself. The basic 
       purpose of the SYS and format/s commands are to make a disk 
       self-starting or self booting. 

       The command FORMAT/S first formats a floppy then adds the hidden 
       files. 

       Example: A>sys b: (used when the disk is already formatted) 

       Example: A>format b:/s (does same thing but first formats blank 
                              disk) 

       Example: A>format b:/s/v (verify also used) 
   
       -- CHKDSK -- (External) checks contents of a disk for errors. 
       Chkdsk/f     fixes minor file allocation table (FAT) errors. 
       Chkdsk/v (v means verbose) displays all filenames as it works. 
       Followed by a filename, chkdsk checks only that file. Always use 
       the version of chkdsk which came with your DOS disk. Switching 
       to a different version from another disk can do damage! 

       Below is a sample display produced by running chkdsk on a floppy 
       disk. The first three lines of the report tell about the disk. 
       The last two tell about the RAM memory inside the computer. 

                       C>chkdsk b:   produces following

                         362496 bytes total disk space
                         251904 bytes in 26 user files
                        110592 bytes available on disk

                           655360 bytes total memory
                               234016 bytes free

       
       Example: A>chkdsk b:              (check b: floppy, all files) 

       Example: C>chkdsk c:\*.*          (check for contiguity of files 
                                         in root of c: drive) 

       Example: A>chkdsk b:this.doc/f/v   (check only the file this.doc 
                                          on b:floppy. Give verbose report 
                                          and attempt to fix any errors) 

       -- FDISK -- (External) prepares hard drive for data. First use 
       fdisk then use format c:/s/v for second step. Some hard disks 
       come shipped with fdisk already run and only need final 
       formatting. Running fdisk is also known as partitioning the hard 
       disk. 

       Example: A>fdisk 

       -- LABEL -- (External) attaches volume label or header to a 
       floppy. Like stamping a book with a title. Only in DOS 3.0 and 
       above. Some utilities can add this feature to DOS 2.11 and 
       below. 

       Example: A>label b:expenses.com 

       -- CTRL & PRTSC -- (Internal) aren't really DOS commands but a 
       combination of two keystrokes at the same time which sends all 
       displayed data to the printer until you hit the same two keys to 
       turn the command off. This allows you to print directory 
       listings or files of interest. Remember to turn command off when 
       finished. Press CTRL-PRTSC to toggle the printer on and print 
       anything which goes to the monitor screen, then press CTRL-PRTSC 
       to toggle the printer off when you have all you need printed. 

       -- SHIFT & PRTSC -- (Internal) two key combination which copies 
       only the current screen to your printer. 

       DOS also uses device (equipment) names within commands. For 
       example you can talk to your printer on keyboard by using the 
       proper DOS name. Each name is unique. Examples follow:

       -- CON -- Is the name for the keyboard and monitor. Below is a 
       repeat of a previous example using the con device name. 

       Copy CON ("copy from the console or keyboard) can prepare batch 
       files and autoexec.bat files to automate many DOS operations 
       (examples below). In this fashion copy can create a new file and 
       act like a very simple word processor! 

       Example: A>copy con autoexec.bat  (press enter) 
  
         A>123                    (press enter) 
  
         A>^Z                     (press enter) 

       -- AUX: or COM1 -- Is the first ansynchronous communication port 
       which usually has a modem, serial printer or mouse connected to 
       it. COM2 is the second port. PC's can have up to 4 serial ports.   

       -- PRN  or LPT1 --  Is the first parallel port which is usually 
       used with a printer. LPT2 is the second printer. By the way, a 
       PORT is an electrial socket on the back of the PC where a cable 
       of some type plugs in. 

       -- CAS1 -- Is an antique term still available within DOS which 
       refers to the early PC days when a cassette recorder was used 
       for storing data rather than floppies. This is the cassette 
       recorder port. 

       -- NUL -- Is a test device. Anything sent to nul goes nowhere. 
       However it is useful in testing DOS batch programs or simply 
       sending excess garbage from a screen report to nul (nowhere) 
       thus uncluttering a busy screen. Odd but useful in its own 
       right. 

       ---------------------------------------------------------------- 
       
                SUBDIRECTORIES - LITTLE BOXES IN THE DISK DRIVE 
       
       ---------------------------------------------------------------- 

       Floppy disks have a relatively limited capacity to store files - 
       limited in comparison to the seemingly expansive space on a hard 
       drive. To find a necessary file name on a floppy, just use the 
       DIR or directory command. However, on a hard disk things get a 
       little out of hand with hundreds of files all listed on the same 
       screen. In version 2.0 of DOS and above, a solution is obtained 
       by adding subdirectories and pathnames to manage the location 
       and organization of file storage. A path is nothing more than a 
       "trail" or "direction post" which helps DOS find a particular 
       file out of the hundreds which may be located on a hard drive. 

       This pathname is facilitated by the use of multiple directories 
       (called subdirectories) on a single disk. In this fashion you 
       sort files into groups in a specific place on the drive. By the 
       way, a subdirectory is itself a small file and does occupy space 
       on the disk. 

       You could compare a hard or floppy disk to a department store. 
       The store might sell toys, books and clothes.  Similar items go 
       in the same department or area. 

       A disk also has the capacity for many separate areas in which to 
       place files. DOS refers to these with a main central directory 
       (root directory) and subdirectories branching below it. You can 
       create a subdirectory named TEXT which contains all your word 
       processing documents. Computer utilities could be in a 
       subdirectory called UTIL, and so on.           

       In diagramatic form this might be seen in a simple example as: 


            ROOT (CENTRAL) DIRECTORY (contains startup files) C:\
                                |
                                |
     ----------------------------------------------------------
     |                           |                            |
     |                           |                            |
  DATABASE SUBDIRECTORY     SPREADSHEET SUBDIRECTORY     GAMES SUBDIRECTORY
     |                      |         |                       |
     |                      |         |                       |
  data files        business files   PERSONAL             games files
                                       |
                                       |
                                   ----------
                                   |        |
                                   |        |
                           Earnings files   Tax files

       On the screen, a listing of any subdirectory might show the 
       first two entries mysteriously named . and .. (single dot and 
       double dot). 

       The first dot is a name for the subdirectory itself. The double 
       dot is a name for the parent (higher) directory one level up. 
       Anytime that a subdirectory can be referred to, one can use . or 
       ..  For example, if you want to copy all of a diskette, you 
       could use copy A:. (A: single dot) instead of copy A:*.* or 
       A:\*.* 

       Be careful to use short pathnames, especially in the DOS search 
       PATH. A long path name (example: \this\that\another\yik\yak) 
       slows down DOS searches and is a pain to type out. When DOS 
       first starts or boots up, you always begin in the root 
       directory. Notice that pathnames use the backslash (\) as their 
       main "roadpost." 
       
       The correct name of a file always includes its path. Thus 
       while we might talk about a file named PCL.EXE its REAL NAME 
       if it were in a subdirectory area of a hard disk might be 
       \this\that\thing\place\PCL.EXE. Most hard drive users include 
       a PATH command within their autoexec.bat file to allow DOS to 
       find the location of all the files. In this way you DON'T have 
       to change directories manually for the file to execute. DOS will 
       simply consult the PATH established when the computer started 
       and read in the autoexec.bat to find all files regardless of 
       subdirectory location. 

       The DOS commands MD, RD, and CD allow you to make, remove, and 
       change among subdirectories. They are of marginal use on a 
       floppy but essential use on a hard drive which may have hundreds 
       of (hard to locate) files.  

       Frequently the main (root) directory is where startup files such 
       as AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS are stored. The mark of a good 
       main or root directory is that a DIR listing of the root should 
       fill only ONE screen and not scroll with several screens of 
       extraneous files. Additional files and programs are neatly 
       tucked into appropriate subdirectories and not into the root 
       area of the hard drive.
       
       -- MD or MKDIR -- (Internal) makes a subdirectory and assigns it 
       a name or 

       Example: A>md\data 

       Example: C>md c:\data\files 

       -- RD or RMDIR -- (Internal) removes an empty subdirectory (it 
       cannot remove a subdirectory already loaded with files as a 
       safety measure - use the DEL command to first clear a 
       subdirectory.) The root (main) directory cannot be removed. 

       Example: B>rd\letters\financial  (removes financial subdirectory 
                                        below letters subdirectory and 
                                        root directory) 

       -- CD or CHDIR -- (Internal) changes the current (active) 
       subdirectory or directory. CD\ brings you to the root (main 
       directory) no matter where you are. 

       Example: A>cd\             (change to the root or uppermost 
                                  directory)                  

       Example: C>cd\data         (change to subdirectory named data 
                                  below the root) 

       Example: B>cd\data\financial 

       ---------------------------------------------------------------- 

           TURNING ON THE PC - THE ELEGANT BALLET OF DOS TECHNOLOGY 
       
       ---------------------------------------------------------------- 

       The following description is an optional tutorial but may
       be interesting for those curious about the starting sequence
       when a computer is first turned on and what the role of DOS is 
       in this elegant "electronic ballet."

       The command processor mentioned earlier (i.e., COMMAND.COM) is 
       also a file which resides on the disk but once it is read into 
       the RAM chip memory of the computer it stays or resides there 
       until the machine is turned off. Sometimes you may even need to 
       load a second copy of COMMAND.COM and at other times, some 
       application programs and games provide their own command 
       processor. Basically COMMAND.COM watches for keystrokes from 
       your keyboard and tries to execute commands and actions based on 
       what it finds. That is why it is called a COMMAND PROCESSOR. 

       The input/output system consists of two system files (which live 
       on the DOS disk) plus a ROM (read only memory) chip which also 
       contains software instructions wired directly into the circuits 
       of your computer. The two system files which are on the DOS disk 
       are normally hidden and not available for changing. The most 
       elemental and necessary part of the input/output system is 
       called the BIOS or basic input/output system. The BIOS consists 
       of the ROM chip on the computer's main circuit board we 
       mentioned earlier plus one of the hidden files on the DOS disk 
       called IBMBIO.COM (or IO.SYS). The other hidden file on the DOS 
       disk, IBMDOS.COM (or MSDOS.SYS), is the main file handling 
       system for the computer.  IBMDOS.COM hides inside it a portion 
       of software for disk based files and a portion for non-disk 
       peripherals.  The two files (IBMDOS.COM and IBMBIO.COM) are 
       necessary because non-disk peripherals require data as strings 
       of characters (one after another in a long line) while disks 
       move their files about in large data groups known as blocks. 

       Let's jump back to COMMAND.COM which provides three services for 
       the computer: it handles critical errors and problems. If your 
       printer is not turned on at the right time or a disk drive door 
       is open, COMMAND.COM finds out and attempts to report a message 
       or suggest a remedy. It also handles critical interrupts which 
       is a technical way of saying it takes care of demands and 
       priorities imposed by the differing parts of the hardware. If 
       you hit the Ctrl-Break key combination to stop a DOS operation, 
       this is a critical interrupt which COMMAND.COM must deal with. 
       Finally it performs end of program services which are routine 
       chores like making more RAM memory available when a program 
       finishes its job or reloading parts of itself when needed. In 
       addition it also places the familiar prompt C> or A> on the 
       screen and listens for commands you might type. Essentially, 
       COMMAND.COM instructs the rest of the DOS series of programs 
       what to do.             

       When you first turn on the switch to start the computer in the 
       morning, the machine goes through a process called "booting." 
       This derives from the arcane but descriptive process which 
       refers to how the machine literally picks itself up by the 
       "bootstraps." In the first stage of "booting up," the machine 
       begins by testing its memory RAM chips and other components in a 
       power on self test (POST). After this, the left or top A: floppy 
       drive spins and if no disk is available the hard drive light 
       flickers as the machine searches for further clues about 
       starting itself. Initially the ROM chip BIOS wired inside the 
       machine loads track 0, sector 0 of the disk. 

       This disk sector contains a very small program (boot loader) 
       which reads the rest of the input/output system stored on the 
       disk. Next the boot loader reads the input/output system 
       (IBMBIO.COM and IBMDOS.COM) into the system. IBMBIO.COM 
       initializes the hardware of the machine and runs a small file 
       named CONFIG.SYS (if available) and finally moves IBMDOS.COM 
       into its normal location in RAM memory. Finally, IBMDOS.COM 
       loads COMMAND.COM and turns control over to it. COMMAND.COM runs 
       the AUTOEXEC.BAT startup file (if found) and finally control is 
       given to the keyboard and you. It is a long process with each 
       step depending on the previous! An elegant ballet, fascinatingly 
       complex, but necessary for the PC to function. 

       Why not wire this permanently into the machine on a ROM (read 
       only memory) chip? Some machines do, but the main advantage of 
       having this information stored on a disk is that it can be 
       updated and revised easily via a change of a floppy disk. The 
       machine can revise its operating system quickly by simply using 
       a different or later version of DOS (or even an operating system 
       other than DOS such as UNIX or other operating systems.) This is 
       what gives the PC such flexibility to change and upgrade to a 
       newer operating system without the expense of tearing down or 
       even replacing the machine. You simply change the floppy disk 
       and you have a new way of doing business! Simplicity, elegance 
       and ease of changing software is what this means for the 
       computer user. 
 
       Tutorial finished. Be sure to order your FOUR BONUS DISKS which 
       expand this software package with vital tools, updates and 
       additional tutorial material for laptop users! Send $20.00 to 
       Seattle Scientific Photography, Department LAP, PO Box 1506, 
       Mercer Island, WA 98040. Bonus disks shipped promptly! Some 
       portions of this software package use sections from the larger 
       PC-Learn tutorial system which you will also receive with your 
       order. Modifications, custom program versions, site and LAN 
       licenses of this package for business or corporate use are 
       possible, contact the author. This software is shareware - an 
       honor system which means TRY BEFORE YOU BUY. Press escape key to 
       return to menu. 
       

